Paper

“Intercultural Contact from a perspective of the Psychology of Emotions”

Kanjō shinrigaku kara no bunka sesshoku kenkyū : zaigō Nihonjin ryūgakusei to zainichi Ajiakei ryūgakusei to no mensetsu kara

Shizu KOYANAGI (2006), Kazama-shobo. Tokyo. (Japanese)

               This thesis reinvestigates culture shock theory which argues that “cultural differences cause problems and stress in a cross-cultural contact”, questioning “why and how cultural differences cause problems employing qualitative analysis. Seventy Japanese students in Australia and 36 international students in Japan from China, Korea, Taiwan and Thailand participated in the semi-structured interviews. It analyses how international students recognise, appraise, experience emotion and behave to cultural norms which are patterns of behaviour and thoughts in interpersonal interaction. This research avoids Positivist view which regards culture as observable fact and monolithic concept, and it adopts an Interpretive Approach focusing on “how sojourners perceive cultural norms” based on Cognitive Theory in Emotion that considers cognitive appraisal reflects subjective and personal meanings in events. 

               The results show that how international students interpret and appraise cultural norms decides their emotions, behaviours and stress levels. They evaluate the intercultural events via their cultural norms which they have developed in their home countries. Having different standards from those of their host’s cultural norms, sojourners experience the negative feelings. Also, analysis of appraisal process revealed that host cultural norms were negatively appraised when international students faced interpersonal conflict with hosts. There was a tendency to attribute the cause of the conflicts to the differences in cultural norms even though other reasons (such as personality or age) could be applied. Furthermore, the phenomena was observed in Australia whilst differences in cultural norms between Japanese and other Asian students were considered as “the same, or similar” and not as problematic, however the same cultural distance between host Japanese and Asian students were considered as difficulties in interpersonal interaction in Japan. The fact the same cultural distance is perceived very differently depending on the context is analysed employing a Relational Theory Approach. 

               These results imply that in cross-cultural contact the differences in cultural norms are not objectively appraised, but the differences in their positions caused by relationships with counterparts results in a “sense of boundary” and that influences their appraisal for host cultural norms. Sojourners and their hosts tend to form a dichotomised sense of boundary, such as “native speakers vs. non-native speakers”, “hosts vs. guests, international students, foreigners”, “Westerners vs. Asians” and “Japanese vs. Chinese, Korean, Taiwanese, Thai”. Such sense of boundary causes differentiation between “in-group” and “out-group” that affects how cultural norms are perceived. International students consider host cultural norms (i.e. characteristics of out-group) as “different” and cultural norms of international students (i.e. characteristics of in-group) as “the same”, so do their hosts. The perception of differences reinforced by this function makes the barrier between hosts and international students higher and influences their interpersonal relationships. Nevertheless, if international students have something in common with hosts through their interests or activities, the common aspect becomes the new standard and a sense of boundary may not be apparent.

               Based on this analysis, an integrated model explaining the relationship between culture and emotion is proposed. Confronting hosts’ behaviour, international students forms recognition of host cultural norms. Without the recognition, they sometimes cannot comprehend the meanings of the behaviour, become confused and misunderstand the situation because of differences in behavioural pattern to their home country. After the recognition, international students evaluate the host cultural norms positively or negatively in terms of “hosts behave according to their cultural norms”, and positive or negative feelings arise based on the appraisal. Moreover, international students evaluate the norms in terms of “I behave according to the norms” and feelings arise accordingly.

               Through this process, appraisal towards host cultural norms takes place, emotion arises accordingly, and international students decide how they should behave based on their emotions. When they negatively evaluate hosts and themselves behave according to host cultural norms, they behave according to their home norms. On the other hand, when they evaluate that they behave in host norms positively, positive feelings arise and they tend to behave according to host cultural norms. Yet, they may face “pressure to conform” and/or “technical difficulties” which may force them to behave against their emotions. Depends on how these factors relate, 6 patterns for understanding host cultural norms and 2 patterns for home cultural norms were extracted.

               The significant findings of this thesis are that how to appraise cultural norms defines their emotion and behaviour and that cultural norms acquired through their enculturation in their home country becomes the standard of appraisal along with sense of boundary formed through the relationship with counterparts. Because of the sense of boundary, hosts and international students interpret the differences in norms subjectively, they tend to overlook similarities and focus on differences, thus cultural distance is considered more significant than substantive and actual differences. These findings provide a new perspective to the culture shock theory that regards cultural differences as causes of intercultural problems.

Impact of Intercultural Communication during short-term study-abroad of Japanese students: Analysis from a perspective of cognitive modification

Shizu KOYANAGI (2018), Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 47(2)，pp105-120.

         This study investigates the impact of intercultural communication on Japanese students during short-term study-abroad programmes. Quantitative analysis indicates the students believe study-abroad broadened their views. 

         Semi-structured interviews identify five categories of impact: utilisation of English language, interpersonal communication skills, involvement in global society, opening doors to greater possibilities and positive attitudes towards living.

         To explain these changes, a theory from Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is applied and a cognitive modification model for intercultural communication is proposed. The study presents evidence that intercultural communication can be an opportunity to recognise and modify one’s cognitive appraisals initially grounded in one’s home culture.

Keywords: Short-term study abroad; intercultural communication; intercultural interpersonal relationship; cognitive modification; Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT); Japanese students    

Interaction of Retired Japanese Seniors Living Overseas:　Reviewing  determining factor(s) for interpersonal interaction with host nationals

Shizu KOYANAGI (2012), Journal of Intercultural Communication No.15, 2012 pp.33-49 (Japanese)

           This article examines the determining factors for interpersonal interaction of Japanese senior sojourners with host nationals, comparing the contexts of Australia and Thailand. Fifty-nine Japanese retired seniors were interviewed in both countries collecting qualitative and quantitative data. Whereas previous studies suggest that host language ability is vital to establishing interpersonal relationship with host nationals, this study found that the Japanese seniors in Thailand had more active interaction with host nationals although their host language skills are much poorer than their counterparts in Australia. 

               The reasons for this finding were investigated in terms of stress during communication, and it was found the Japanese seniors in Australia feel much greater stress in communicating with hosts than those in Thailand. Furthermore, the seniors in Australia tend to be exposed to higher stress levels in English language communication even though they have relatively high English language proficiency.

               Employing the interpretive approach, this study suggests that “sense of boundary in ethnicity” has a stronger meaning to Japanese seniors than “sense of boundary in language” and this causes less interaction with Australians. It further suggests that the power relationship between host and guest nationals in a global society affects both hosts’ attitude towards guests and guests’ sense of boundary.

Analysis of factors which decided temporary return of international

students after the Great East Japan Earthquake

Shizu KOYANAGI, Eunyoung CHO, Sawako TOICHI, Katsura AMANO, Zhang HAILING,  (2012), Nihongo-Kenkyu No.32, pp.29-44 (Japanese)

The Boundary amongst Asian students in Japan: Why Cultural Norms are Perceicved as Essential?

Shizu KOYANAGI (2005), Intercultural/ Transcultural Education, vol. 22. pp80-94. (Japanese)

               Recent cross-cultural studies have seen the emergence of two different perspectives; one is to focus on the differences in cultures and the other is to argue against such cultural essentialization. In order to understand the gap between these perspectives, this research investigated how sojourners perceive the cultural norms of their hosts based on semi-structured interviews with 36 international students from Asia studying at universities in Japan.

              The results revealed that Asian students consider that the Japanese have certain defined behavioural and thinking patterns, and thus Japanese cultural norms have been stereotyped into their minds. It also found that the diversity among the Japanese is overlooked and that any difficulties in their interpersonal relationships with the Japanese are attributed to the differences in cultural norms.

               In its discussion, this study endeavoured to explain why host cultural norms are perceived as stereotypes, employing Barth’s Ethnic Boundary Theory and Tajfel’s Social Categorization Theory. In a cross-cultural context, boundaries between international students and hosts may appear when categorization happens based on some criteria. The boundary then creates a differentiation between an in-group and an out-group. When people regard their counterparts as the out-group, their cultural norms are seen to be different from those of the in-group through the effect of differentiation by categorization.

               The analysis of the research also discovered that ethnicity did not always create a boundary. The boundaries could be drawn such as “Japanese native speakers – non-native speakers” or “Hosts – International Students” depending on how each perceives the relationship. Therefore, in cross-cultural contact, people do not perceive substantial differences objectively. Boundaries emerge depending on the relationship and affect on their perception, then the differences in cultural norms are empathised with and interpreted subjectively. 

Perceived boundary of ‘difference’ and ‘sameness’ by Japanese students in Australia: Is differences in cultures a significant variable for construction interpersonal relationship?

Shizu KOYANAGI (2003), Journal of the Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University, vol.5. pp311-320. (Japanese)

               Thirty-one Japanese undergraduate and postgraduate students in Australian universities participated in semi-structured interviews to examine the interpersonal relationships between Japanese students and other nationalities in Australia, in particular, Australians and other international students. It was found that the Japanese students tended to form closer relationships and feel more comfortable in communicating with other Asian students than Australians, and that many regard Asian students as “the same (in-group)” and Australians as “different (out-group)”. The research reveals a boundary perceived by Japanese students to identify Asian students into “us” and Australians into “them” categories. The criteria of the boundary are: “non-native English speakers – native English speakers”; “Asians – Westerners”; and “foreigners or international students – hosts”.

               It has been widely held that the difficulties in cross-cultural relationships occur because of the cultural distance. Japanese students in Australia, however, did not find difficulties or cultural distance with Asian students, despite the fact that cultural distance between Japanese and Asians in Japan is often reported. Therefore, this article proposes that cultural distance is strongly noticed when people with different cultural backgrounds stand on the different position or group divided by the boundary, and that it is not remarkable when they stand on the same position or group. The cultural difference is not a barrier to cross-cultural relationships, but the perception of the boundary influences the relationships. 

Japanese international students in Australia in the age of popularisation of study overseas: Their motivation and outcomes

Shizu KOYANAGI (2002), International Students Education, vol.7. pp27-38. (Japanese)

Adjustment of Japanese students in Australia

Shizu KOYANAGI (1999), Journal of Australian Studies, vol. 12. pp33-46. (Japanese)

The number of international students in Australia has been increasing since the introduction of full-fee paying system.

Japanese students in Australia: Their adjustment to and satisfaction with their Australian study sojourn

Shizu KOYANAGI (1999), RMIT University, MA thesis (English)

     This study examined the adjustment experiences of 70 international students from Japan by means of semi-structured interviews, focusing on the factors which impacted on the level and the process of adjustment. Considering the definitional confusion around “adjustment” in the literature, cultural adjustment in this study was investigated through the use of three concepts: (1) sociocultural adjustment, which indicates operational comfortableness in the new context in the academic, daily life and interpersonal domains, (2) psychological adjustment, which indicates emotional comfortableness in the new context in the academic, daily life and interpersonal domains and (3) acculturation performance, which indicates positive involvement of the individuals with the host society.

     A relatively high level of adjustment was reported in all sociocultural aspects. About three quarter of the students obtained satisfactory academic results, almost 80 per cent rarely had difficulties in their day-to-day living, and the great majority of them answered they had little difficulty in communicating with their non-Japanese friends and classmates. On the other hand, psychological adjustment varied depending on the domains. While more than 70 per cent of the students enjoyed and were happy with their educational institutions and 66 per cent felt comfortable with daily life situations, nearly 70 per cent of them felt some degree of hesitation or fear in communicating with Australians. This result indicates the psychological stress of the Japanese students in interacting with Australians. 

     The level of acculturation performance, which is an overall consequence of all adjustment aspects, varied widely depending on the students. A quarter of the students were involved with the Australian society to a relatively high level, fulfilling themselves and functioning effectively in the society. In contrast, almost the same proportion were separated from their host society and their range and level of activities were limited. Their interaction with Australians and activities in the Australian society was very limited. However, a low level of acculturation performance does not always imply negative and problematic situations. While many students did not involve themselves in the host society at all, they spend a meaningful and fulfilling existence within the international student community. Therefore, along with acculturation performance, maladjustment was used to indicate the problematic adjustment as an overall consequence of their cross-cultural experiences.

     More than 50 variables were investigated as the determinant factors of adjustment and acculturation performance, and several constellations of variables emerged as significant. Very little significance was found in personal background, preparedness, and support systems, which represent new findings. While English proficiency at the time of the interview significantly related with sociocultural adjustment, it did not correlate with acculturation performance and psychological adjustment except in the interpersonal domain. Other variables in interpersonal communication skills, namely willingness in communication and lowering of the language barrier, related to psychological adjustment in the interpersonal domain and with acculturation performance. Although the level of host cultural rule understanding in all domains correlated significantly with acculturation performance, the correlation between adjustment and cultural rule understanding differed depending on the domains. Strong relationships were found between interaction opportunities with Australians and all aspects of adjustment and acculturation performance. Also, established interaction with Australians related with most aspects of adjustment and acculturation performance. The quantitative analysis found that total satisfaction level correlated with measures of acculturation and some aspects of adjustment, though case study data highlighted this not to be valid in all cases.

      The analysis of the relationship between each aspect of adjustment and acculturation performance suggests the necessity of differentiating sociocultural and psychological adjustment, and the importance of investigation in each domain. That implies sociocultural adjustment is not always associated with psychological adjustment, and a high level of adjustment in one domain does not necessarily indicate high level of adjustment in other domains. Acculturation performance correlated with most aspects of adjustment and could be considered as an all-embracing outcome of the various aspects of adjustment. Furthermore, maladjustment was identified as the result of negative psychological adjustment. 

     An acculturation typology for Japanese students was developed based on the six most significant variables which are ; interaction opportunities with Australians, host cultural rule understanding of emotional dimensions in the interpersonal domain, host cultural rule understanding of behavioural dimensions in the interpersonal domain, established interaction with Australians, psychological adjustment in the interpersonal domain, level of acculturation and maladjustment. Based on the variables, the students were categorised into five types; “happy international isolate”, “happy host avoider”, “unadjusted marginal”, “happy adaptee” and “bicultural operator”. The factors which differentiated the five types in the typology are explained in a model of acculturation process. Firstly, interaction opportunities with hosts generates acculturation stress to international students, and they feel stress in interacting with Australians. The sources of the stress are different sets of anxieties, namely “guest anxiety”, “non-native anxiety” and "Asian anxiety”. If the students have interaction opportunities with other nationals, they tend to interact with other nationals because of less stress, and as the result, they enclose themselves within the international student community. They are the “happy host avoiders” who form the core of the international student community together with the “happy international isolates” who are those who do not have initial interaction opportunities with hosts. When the students have sufficient communication skills, they may understand host cultural rules through appropriate communication with hosts and could establish social contact with hosts. The “happy adaptees” are those on the way of developing the understanding of host cultural rules and social contact with hosts. Only when the students understand host cultural rules and establish social contact with Australians, can they become highly acculturated and be called “bicultural operator”. The process of acculturation can be hindered by ethnocentrism and negative self-perception as Japanese. The possibility of maladjustment becomes higher for the students who can not establish good relationships with both Australians and international students. The “unadjusted marginals” represent this type of students.

     This study finally addresses the issues in cross-cultural adjustment, namely, difficulties in networking with host nationals, problematic definitions of adjustment, and the inadequacies of the cultural shock model, and concludes with recommendations for adjustment and acculturation strategies.